Combining Rational Design and Continuous Evolution on Minimalist Proteins That Target the E-box DNA Site.

Protein-based therapeutics are part of the next-generation arsenal of drugs being developed against proto-oncoprotein Myc. We designed protein MEF to mimic the basic region/helix-loop-helix/leucine zipper (bHLHZ) domain of Max and Myc, which bind to the E-box motif (enhancer box, CACGTG). To make MEF, we started with our rationally designed ME47, a hybrid of the Max basic region and E47 HLH, that effectively inhibited tumor growth in a mouse model of breast cancer. We used phage-assisted continuous evolution (PACE), which uncovered mutations at Arg12 that contact the DNA phosphodiester backbone. The Arg12 mutations improved ME47's stability. We replaced Cys29 with Ala to eliminate potential undesired disulfide formation and fused the designed FosW leucine zipper to mutated ME47 to increase the dimerization interface and E-box targeting activity. This "franken-protein" MEF comprises the Max basic region, E47 HLH, and FosW leucine zipper. Compared with ME47, MEF gives 2-fold stronger binding to E-box and 4-fold increased specificity for E-box over nonspecific DNA. The synergistic combination of rational design and PACE allowed us to make MEF and demonstrates the power and utility of our two-pronged approach toward development of promising protein drugs with robust structure and DNA-binding function.

Phage-Assisted Continuous Evolution (PACE): A Guide Focused on Evolving Protein-DNA Interactions.

The uptake of directed evolution methods is increasing, as these powerful systems can be utilized to develop new biomolecules with altered/novel activities, for example, proteins with new catalytic functions or substrate specificities and nucleic acids that recognize an intended target. Especially useful are systems that incorporate continuous evolution, where the protein under selective pressure undergoes continuous mutagenesis with little-to-no input from the researcher once the system is started. However, continuous evolution methods can be challenging to implement and a daunting investment of time and resources. Our intent is to provide basic information and helpful suggestions that we have gained from our experience with bacterial phage-assisted continuous evolution (PACE) toward the evolution of proteins that bind to a specific DNA target. We discuss factors to consider before adopting PACE for a given evolution scheme with focus on the PACE bacterial one-hybrid selection system and what optimization of a PACE selection circuit may look like using the evolution of the DNA-binding protein ME47 as a case study. We outline different types of selection circuits and techniques that may be added onto a basic PACE setup. With this information, researchers will be better equipped to determine whether PACE is a valid strategy to adopt for their research program and how to set up a valid selection circuit.

The DNA target determines the dimerization partner selected by bHLHZ-like hybrid proteins AhRJun and ArntFos.

The molecular basis of protein-partner selection and DNA binding of the basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) and basic region-leucine zipper (bZIP) superfamilies of dimeric transcription factors is fundamental toward understanding gene regulation. Because these families share structural similarities, we swapped the bHLH and leucine zipper (LZ) modules between families to uncover how individual modules influence protein-partnering and protein:DNA complexation. We previously described ArntFos, a bHLHZ-like hybrid of the bHLH domain from the bHLH/PAS protein Arnt and LZ from the bZIP protein c-Fos, binding to the Arnt E-box site (TCACGTGA) as a homodimer. Herein, we describe a heterodimer between ArntFos and AhRJun, a hybrid of the bHLH domain from AhR and LZ of JunD. We designed AhRJun and ArntFos to heterodimerize, given the strong interaction between native AhR/Arnt and Jun/Fos, but the hybrids showed no preference for hetero- or homo-dimerization in Y2H assays. However, adding a specific DNA target drove the formation of a single dimeric protein species over others. EMSA showed that the AhRJun/ArntFos heterodimer binds to the cognate DNA site XRE1 (TTGCGTG) with Kd = 337 nM. Unexpectedly, the palindromic Arnt E-box drove the binding of the AhRJun/ArntFos heterodimer (Kd = 276 nM)-not the ArntFos homodimer-that binds to the Arnt E-box. However, the dimerization preference switched to the ArntFos homodimer when the variant Max E-box (CCACGTGG) was used. We conclude that the DNA sites themselves are the primary determinants of dimerization specificity for AhRJun and ArntFos, not the JunD and c-Fos LZs, a result that sheds light on the dynamics of protein/protein and protein:DNA interactions and the structural modularity of bHLH and bZIP proteins.

The role of ligand density and size in mediating quantum dot nuclear transport.

Studying the effects of the physicochemical properties of nanomaterials on cellular uptake, toxicity, and exocytosis can provide the foundation for designing safer and more effective nanoparticles for clinical applications. However, an understanding of the effects of these properties on subcellular transport, accumulation, and distribution remains limited. The present study investigates the effects of surface density and particle size of semiconductor quantum dots on cellular uptake as well as nuclear transport kinetics, retention, and accumulation. The current work illustrates that cellular uptake and nuclear accumulation of nanoparticles depend on surface density of the nuclear localization signal (NLS) peptides with nuclear transport reaching a plateau at 20% surface NLS density in as little as 30 min. These intracellular nanoparticles have no effects on cell viability up to 72 h post treatment. These findings will set a foundation for engineering more sophisticated nanoparticle systems for imaging and manipulating genetic targets in the nucleus.

A proteomic analysis of the regulon of the NarP two-component regulatory system response regulator in the bovine pathogen Mannheimia haemolytica A1.

BACKGROUND: The response of the NarQP two-component signal transduction system regulon in response to the presence of nitrate for the bovine pathogen Mannheimia haemolytica A1 was investigated by proteomic analysis. Total proteins from a narP mutant and the parent SH1217 grown with or without NaNO3 supplement were examined by ISO-DALT 2D electrophoresis and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. RESULTS: Seventeen proteins were differentially expressed in the parent strain SH1217 in response to the addition of NaNO3 to the growth media. These responses were absent in the narP mutant, indicating that the altered production of these proteins is mediated by NarPMh. Interestingly, NarPMh mediated the increased production of some proteins which are not generally associated with nitrate respiration, such as the iron transporters FbpA and YfeA. The increased production of proteins such as superoxide dismutase, SodA, and GAPDH were also observed. The increased production of these iron-regulated proteins by NarPMh is thought to enhance the swift establishment of the nitrate respiration mechanism of M. haemolytica during pathogenesis. CONCLUSION: The data suggested NarPMh acts as an important regulator which regulates the expression of a small set of proteins in response to nitrate availability. This may contribute to the prevalence of M. haemolytica A1 in its host during pathogenesis of BPP, through enhancing the effectiveness of nitrate respiration either directly or indirectly.

Identification of putative two-component regulatory systems in the bovine pathogen Mannheimia haemolytica A1, and preliminary characterization of the NarQ/P system.

The complete genome sequence of the bovine pathogen Mannheimia haemolytica A1 was analyzed by blast searches for the presence of two-component regulatory system proteins. Five complete sets of putative two-component systems were identified, and the NarQ/P system was further investigated. in silico analysis of the NarQ and NarP proteins showed features that are typical of the sensor and response regulator proteins. A narP knock-out mutant was constructed. The narP mutant has lost its ability to respond to NaNO(3) in the media and fail to alter the expression of several proteins. One of the proteins that showed increased production in the parent strain in response to NaNO(3) was analyzed by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight MS. Unexpectedly, the protein was identified to be FbpA, a periplasmic component of the iron transporter system. Sequence analysis of the promoter region of fbpA identified motifs typical for NarP-regulated genes. The expression of the leukotoxin gene was also altered in the narP mutant as shown by Western immunoblot analysis and reverse transcription-PCR.